| | Contributors xiii
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| | Preface and acknowledgements xv
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Part One: Introduction
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1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
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| Ecology and biogeography of Pinus: an introduction 3
David M. Richardson and Philip W. Rundel
Introduction 3
The origin and evolution of pines 3
Pines compared with other conifers and broadleaved trees 9
Morphological traits of pines 10
Ecophysiological traits of pines in relation to other conifers 13
Pines in the landscape 14
Pines and humans 27
The study of pines 38
Acknowledgements 40
References 40
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Part Two: Evolution, phylogeny and systematics
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2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
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| Phylogeny and systematics of Pinus 49
Robert A. Price, Aaron Liston and Steven H. Strauss
Introduction 49
Pinus in relation to other Pinaceae 50
History of pine systematics 51
Morphological characters important to pine classification 56
Contributions from cytology and crossability studies 57
Contributions from secondary product chemistry and protein comparisons 59
Contributions from DNA analysis 6o
Conclusions 63
Acknowledgements 63
References 65
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3
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
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| Early evolution of pines 69
Constance I. Millar
Introduction 69
Mesozoic biogeography 69
Early Tertiary biogeography 73
Impact of early Tertiary climate on pine evolution 81
Pleistocene versus Eocene impacts 86
Validation 86
References 87
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Part Three: Historical biogeography
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4
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
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| The late Quaternary dynamics of pines in northern Asia 95
Constantin V. Kremenetski, Kam-biu Liu and Glen M. MacDonald
Introduction 95
Siberia and Mongolia 96
China 98
Japan lol
Discussion 102
Acknowledgements 103
References 103
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5
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
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| The late Quaternary dynamics of pines in Europe 107
Katherine J. Willis, Keith D. Bennett and H. John B. Birks
Introduction 107
Full-glacial and late-glacial distribution 110
Late-glacial and postglacial (Holocene) distribution change 112
Late Holocene range contraction of Pinus sylvestris in northern Europe 115
Late Holocene expansion of pines in southern Europe 117
Conclusions 118
References 119
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6
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
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| The late Quaternary dynamics of pines in northern North America 122
Glen M. MacDonald, Les C. Cwynar and Cathy Whitlock
Introduction 122
Northeastern North America 123
The continental northern interior 126
The Pacific Northwest and Alaska 128
Discussion 131
Acknowledgements 133
References 133
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7
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
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| The history ofpines in Mexico and Central America 137
Jesse P. Perry Jr, Alan Graham and David M. Richardson
Introduction 137
Preglacial spread of pines in continental North-America 138
Postglacial migration of pines in Mexico and Central America;
its impact on diversification of pines 142
The diversification of pines in Mexico and Central-America 142
Human influences 145
Conclusions 146
References 147
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Part Four: Macroecology and recent biogeography
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8
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8
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| Pines of the Mediterranean Basin 153
Marcel Barbéro, Roger Loisel, Pierre Quézel, David M. Richardson
and François Romane
Introduction 153
The Mediterranean pine resource 154
The present ecological status of pines and their biogeography in the Mediterranean Basin 159
The role of pines in the vegetation history of the Mediterranean Basin after the last glaciation 161
The role of pines in recent vegetation history 163
Vegetation change scenarios 163
The present: models of dynamics 165
Conclusions 165
References 166
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9
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
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| The recent history of pinyon pines in the American Southwest 171
Ronald M. Lanner and Thomas R. Van Devender
Introduction 171
Data sources for Pleistocene/Holocene studies 172
Species case studies 173
The historical period 178
Concludirignote 180
Acknowledgements 180
References 180
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10
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
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| Macroecological limits to the abundance and distribution of Pinus 183
George C. Stevens and Brian J. Enquist
Introduction 183
Rapoport's Rule in pines 184
Statistical methods and visualization protocol 186
Rapoport's intraspecific rule for range fragments 186
Conclusions 189
Acknowledgements 190
References 190
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Part Five: Ecological themes
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11
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5
11.6
11.7
11.8
11.9
11.10
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| Fire and pine ecosystems 193
James K. Agee
Introduction 193
The fire environment offinus 193
Fire adaptations and successional status of pines 196
The fire regimes ofpines 197
Low-severity fire regimes 198
Moderate-severity fire regimes 202
High-severity fire regimes 206
Fire and tropical pines 211
The role of fire in pine invasions and plantation management in the southern hemisphere 211
Conclusions 212
References 213
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12
12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
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| Evolution of life histories in Pinus 219
Jon E. Keeley and Paul H. Zedler
Introduction 219
Ecological strategies in pines 220
Role of ecological strategies in determining patterns of cone production,
seed germination, and predation 234
Conclusions on life history evolution in pines 239
Acknowledgements 242
References 242
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13
13.1
13.2
13.3
13.4
13.5
13.6
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| Genetic variation in Pinus 251
F. Thomas Ledig
Introduction 251
The genetic system 251
Patterns ofvariation in pines 269
Domestication 271
Conservation 272
Conclusions 272
References 273
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14
14.1
14.2
14.3
14.4
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| Seed dispersal inPinus 281
Ronald M. Lanner
Introduction 281
The context ofpine seed dispersal 281
Agents ofpine seed dispersal 288
Conclusions 292
References 293
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15
15.1
15.2
15.3
15.4
15.5
15.6
15.7
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| Ecophysiology of Pinus 296
PhilipW. Rundel and Barbara J.Yoder
Introduction 296
Physiological processes 296
Waterrelations 302
Respiration 306
Ecophysiological response to environmental stress 306
The atmospheric environment 313
Conclusions 315
References 316
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16
16.1
16.2
16.3
16.4
16.5
16.6
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| The mycorrhizal status of Pinus 324
David J.Read
Introduction 324
Structural and epidemiological aspects of Pinus mycorrhiza 325
The extramatrical mycelial system of pine ectomycorrhiza 327
Returns on carbon investment in mycorrhizal Pinus plants 329
Ecological aspects of the mycorrhizal symbiosis in Pinus 333
Summary and conclusions 336
Acknowledgements 336
References 337
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17
17.1
17.2
17.3
17.4
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| Effects of pines on soil properties and processes 341
Mary C. Scholes and Thomas E. Nowicki
Introduction 341
Characteristic soil properties and processes associated with pines 341
Soil changes associated with pine afforestation 343
Conclusions 350
References 350
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18
18.1
18.2
18.3
18.4
18.5
18.6
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| Insect-pine interactions 354
Peter de Groot and Jean J. Turgeon
Introduction 354
Insect fauna of pines in Canada and the United States 354
Effect of insect herbivory on pine 367
Tree defence against insect herbivory and the response of insects 369
Management of pine: keeping insects in mind 371
Conclusions 375
Acknowledgements 375
References 376
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19
19.1
19.2
19.3
19.4
19.5
19.6
19.7
19.8
19.9
19.10
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| Diseases and the ecology of indigenous and exotic pines 381
Thomas C. Harrington and Michael J. Wingfield
Introduction 381
Dwarf mistletoe 382
Stem rots 384
Root rots 385
Other root diseases 388
Canker diseases 389
Needle diseases 392
Rust diseases 394
Diseases caused by nematodes 397
Conclusions 398
Acknowledgements 398
References 399
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Part Six: Pines and humans
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20
20.1
20.2
20.3
20.4
20.5
20.6
20.7
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| Pines in cultivation: a global view 407
David C. Le Maitre
Introduction 407
Prehistory to Classical Greece 408
Classical Greece to the Middle Ages 410
Middle Ages to the 17th century 413
The 18th and 19th centuries 414
The 20th century 417
Synthesis 423
Acknowledgements 425
References 425
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21
21.1
21.2
21.3
21.4
21.5
21.6
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| Pinus radiata: a narrow endemic from North America takes on the world 432
Peter B. Lavery and Donald J. Mead
Preamble 432
Discovery and destiny 432
Taxonomy and nomenclature 433
The native resource and gene Pool 436
The ex situ plantation resource 439
The future for Pinus radiata 446
References 449
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22
22.1
22.2
22.3
22.4
22.5
22.6
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| Pines as invaders in the southern hemisphere 450
David M. Richardson and Steven I. Higgins
Introduction 450
Pines as alien invaders in the southern hemisphere 452
Case study: invasive pines on the Cape Peninsula, South Africa 458
Towards a predictive understanding of pine invasions 46o
Managing pine invasions 466
Conclusions 469
Acknowledgements 470
References 470
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| | Glossary 475
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| | A glossary of English common names for pines 490
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| | Index of biota and taxa 497
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| | Subject index 519
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Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England, 1998, 527 pages, black-and-white photographs, figures, tables, maps
Pinus is a remarkable genus of trees with a very large distribution range in the northern hemisphere. Where they occur, pines usually form the dominant vegetation cover and are extremely important components of ecosystems. They also provide a wide range of products for human use. In many cases exploitation and other human pressures are threatening the survival of natural pine forests, although pines are also now widely grown in commercial plantations, both within and outside their natural ranges. This book presents a definitive review of pine ecology and biogeography written by forty of the world's leading authorities on this improtant genus. In the face of increasing human pressure and global climate change, it provides an essential source of reference for all those concerned with the management of natural and planted pine forests.